Ratzel’s Communication Theory, China’s Colonial History

Contents of this article

• 1. China’s colonial history
• 2. Introduction Anthropology believes that what are the ways in which human beings came into being?
• 3. The motivation for ethnomusicology comes from
• 4. What are the main theories on the origin of literature? What are the main advocates and views of each theory? Please help from experts~~·

China's colonial history

The modern era of colonialism began around 1500. At the end of the 15th century, Europeans discovered shipping routes to the Indian Ocean and the Americas. Since then, the center of commerce and trade has gradually shifted from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic. Colonial countries such as Portugal, Spain, the Netherlands, France, and the United Kingdom have appeared, and their colonial and expansion activities have spread throughout the world. around the world, while also spreading European institutions and culture. The first stage of colonial expansion of European countries from 1450 to 1763. Although the Crusaders opened up new commercial and political exchanges between Europe and the Muslims in the Near East, the Eastern trade through the Mediterranean was mostly monopolized by the Republic of Venice and the Republic of Genoa. Western European countries were eager to seek wealth in the East; the advancement of geographical knowledge and the introduction of compass needles The development of the shipbuilding industry made ocean navigation possible. After the mid-15th century, Portugal first colonized Madeira Islands and the Azores Islands.
In 1498, Vasco da Gama sailed around the Cape of Good Hope to India, which was the beginning of trade between Portugal and India. After that, Portugal began to change its pure trade policy and began to conquer strongholds on the trade routes, build fortifications, and deploy officers and soldiers to ensure the smooth flow of its trade.
In 1510, Portugal occupied Goa and turned it into the headquarters of the Portuguese colonial empire in the East; it later expanded in Southeast Asia, Brazil and other places in the Americas.
In 1553, it leased Macao from China and used it as a base to conduct trade with China for 300 years. The Spanish colonial period lasted for nearly three centuries. After discovering the New World in 1492, Spain actively colonized the Americas.
In 1494, under the arbitration of Pope Alexander VI, Portugal and Spain signed the Treaty of Tordesillas, dividing the scope of the divided world. Spain established a huge colonial empire in Central and South America, the Spanish Empire, and implemented a cruel enslavement policy against the indigenous peoples. As a result, the indigenous population dropped sharply from 50 million when the Spanish first arrived to 4 million in the 17th century. The opening of new shipping routes completely changed the situation in Europe. Countries that were formerly on the Atlantic Ocean were now in a central position and began to move towards the outside world. Colonial powers gradually replaced feudal principalities and city-states. The large inflow of American gold and silver caused a price revolution in Europe. , the price in England in 1650 was 250% of that in 1500. The changes in commerce promoted the development of industry, and currency brokerage replaced the large amount of barter that originally existed. The development of foreign trade has caused changes in the dietary structure of Europeans. Coffee, chocolate, tea, tobacco, and potatoes have entered the European market in large quantities. Italy's status as a commercial center and the Hanseatic League in the Baltic Sea declined greatly, and were replaced by the new powers of Britain, France, and the Netherlands. By the second half of the 16th century, Portugal and Spain had to face challenges from these countries.
The Netherlands won independence at the end of the 16th century and developed into the world's earliest maritime and commercial country in the 17th century. The Dutch East India Company, established in 1602, set up its headquarters in Batavia, Java, which was the center of the Netherlands in the East. Trade was carried on through it with China, Japan, India, Ceylon and Persia. The Dutch's penetration into the East was not initially about colonization but about monopolizing local trade to supply the country with coffee, spices and other commodities it needed.
The Netherlands occupied Taiwan for 38 years in 1624. At the same time, they actively colonized North America and established the Dutch West India Company. France began to colonize abroad in the 16th century. In 1603, it established the New France colony in North America. It competed with Britain in the East for India, and was finally squeezed out by Britain. Britain established the Moscow Company in 1553 to conduct small transactions with Russia, and later turned to the Northwest Passage.
In 1600, London merchants established the British East India Company and focused on expanding into the Indian Peninsula. After Britain defeated the Spanish Armada in 1588, it also launched colonial activities in the Americas. Most of the British colonies on the North American continent were along the eastern seaboard. They mainly engaged in agriculture and also owned many ships to trade with Britain, Africa and the West Indies. By 1763, Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Charleston, South Carolina The towns have developed into cities. In order to adapt to the expansion of colonial activities, several colonial countries resurrected the slavery system that had frequently disappeared in the Mediterranean area during the Middle Ages. The Portuguese began using Berbers as slaves in 1442. The Spanish began to import black Africans into the Americas in 1502 to make up for the labor shortage caused by the mass slaughter of Indians. The British and Dutch slave trades began in 1562 and 1619 respectively. By the mid-18th century, the slave trade reached its peak. In 1763, Britain had 150 ships carrying nearly 40,000 black slaves to Africa.
From 1689 to 1763, Britain and France fought four wars. Although the wars took place in Europe, they greatly changed the face of the colonies, especially the fourth war - the Seven Years' War, in which Britain A great victory, and he obtained Canada and all the territory east of the Mississippi River, as well as Spanish Florida. In this way, after a century and a half of colonization, Britain became the first-class colonial power. Although its colonial area was second only to Spain, it had a powerful navy, great national strength, and great power, which was beyond the reach of Spain. From 1763 onwards, European colonial expansion entered its second stage. After the advent of the Industrial Revolution, the traditional colonial trade based on sugar, tobacco and slaves was no longer important. The demand for industrial raw materials such as cotton, wool, fuel, iron, copper, tin, coal, etc. in industrial countries replaced the demand for consumer goods. At the same time, these countries urgently needed to open up markets outside their own countries to absorb the industrial products produced in their own countries. Since the market in Europe was already saturated, it could only seek development space in the Americas and Asia (the colonization of Africa had not yet begun). For example: India has been exporting cotton cloth to Britain, but by the middle of the 19th century, a quarter of British cotton cloth exports were dumped to India, and India had lost its export market. Secondly, Europe immigrated to the colonies in large numbers, exterminating or driving away the indigenous peoples to gain space for agricultural and industrial development, or conquering and transforming the societies of the indigenous peoples to adapt to the needs of the colonial countries. The development of science and technology, transportation, especially railways, was an important tool for external expansion, and also created a sense of superiority of the colonial country and a sense of inferiority among the colonial peoples in the minds of the colonial people.
For more than 100 years from 1763 to 1875, Britain possessed unparalleled maritime power. Its activities spread across North America, the South Pacific, the Far East, the South Atlantic and the coast of Africa. The original foothold on the coast became a conquest inland. base. After the independence of the thirteen North American states in 1776, the British colonial cause was greatly affected, and the focus of colonial management shifted from North America to India, which had richer resources and a larger market. In addition, Britain also occupied Australia, New Zealand, the Royal Coast of Africa, Gambia, Cape Colony, Burma, Hong Kong and other places in Asia. The expansion of colonial activities made Britain the world's factory. Britain's monopoly trade had been changed to free trade at the beginning of the 19th century. Due to the influence of the concept of natural human rights promoted by the French Revolution, as well as religious, humanitarian and economic reasons, Britain in 1807 Declaring the slave trade illegal, the Netherlands, France, Sweden, Denmark and other countries also announced bans on the slave trade. This measure caused the strongholds of various countries on the coast of Africa to shrink rapidly. Denmark and the Netherlands both sold their trading stations along the coast of West Africa in the mid-19th century. At the same time, due to the impact of the Napoleonic Wars, Spanish and Portuguese colonies in the Americas declared independence one after another, the demand for slaves dropped sharply, and the colonial power of these two countries in Africa also weakened rapidly. In North Africa, France took advantage of the decline of the Ottoman Empire, a feudal theocratic empire that once spanned Europe, Asia and Africa, and took advantage of the opportunity of eliminating North African pirates to penetrate into the Ottoman Empire's territories such as Algeria and Tunisia. Algeria, where piracy was the most active, suffered the heaviest blow. In 1815, the U.S. Navy defeated the Algerian Navy. In 1819, the Anglo-Dutch fleet bombarded Algiers. France also had many conflicts with Algeria and occupied Algeria in 1830.
From 1825 to 1875, with the exception of Britain and France, the activities of European countries to conquer new colonies had basically stopped and were replaced by the movement of immigrants to overseas colonies. As far as the situation in the UK is concerned, the words of British Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli in 1851 can be said to be the best summary of Britain’s attitude towards the colonies during this period: “The colonies are a heavy weight hanging around our (Britain’s) neck. Millstone". Take the two small British colonies in The Gambia and the Gold Coast as examples. Their commercial tax revenue is far from keeping up with the administrative expenses. The British Parliament has recommended several times to reduce the size of the colonies or abandon them completely. This is just because the British Royal Navy's West Africa Squadron needs to operate in the Gulf of Guinea. The establishment of naval strongholds prohibited the slave trade, and Britain finally retained these two areas. However, in order to resettle the liberated black slaves from the Caribbean islands, Britain opened up the colony of Sierra Leone through the establishment of authorized companies during the period of colonial shrinkage. The American Colonization Society opened up the colony of Liberia during the same period, and France opened up the colony of Libreville. (present-day Gabon) colonies, which were used to house freed slaves.
In 1833, slaves in British overseas territories were finally emancipated. The late 1840s. The British Industrial Revolution was completed and it had advantages in overseas trade and finance. On the contrary, the colonial activities of Spain and Portugal began to decline in the mid-19th century, and the Napoleonic Wars accelerated this process, while national movements grew.
In 1825, Spain lost its colonies in South America, and Britain took the opportunity to penetrate. By the first half of the 19th century, Latin America had become the largest market for British textiles. Waves of immigration followed, with an estimated 55 million immigrants leaving Europe in the 100 years after 1820. From 1875 to World War I, competition among colonial powers intensified. In addition to the old colonial powers (including Russia), new colonial powers such as Germany, the United States, Italy, Belgium and Japan emerged. In 1860, the British and French forces invaded Beijing, and Russia took the opportunity to seize the Amur Province and obtain the privileges of Manchuria. The two Opium Wars opened the door to China. The competition between the great powers prevented any country from monopolizing China. Therefore, they stepped up their efforts to divide their spheres of influence in China and imposed many unequal treaties on China. China claims to be independent, but in fact it continues to provide more and more privileges and leases to foreign countries. Japan, which was a latecomer, also vigorously expanded into China and Korea. At the beginning of the 20th century, it had enjoyed privileges in Manchuria, China, and turned Korea, Taiwan and neighboring islands into its colonies.
In 1870, after the Franco-Prussian War ended and Germany was unified, German geographer Friedrich Ratzel began to study the market issues of German industrial products that were expanding at the time, and began to apply geography to Bismarck's imperialist policies. To defend. He believes that as the world moves forward, space will become more and more important to a country, big countries will gradually expand, and small countries will become insignificant. The history of the world has made increasing demands on space, a fact that can be seen clearly from the evolution of the important commercial nations: Venice is a city; the Netherlands is a delta country; England is an island; the United States is a continent. All powerful countries must follow this absolute and inevitable trend and strive to expand their space through colonization, mergers and conquest. British imperial theorist Sir Half Makinde also proposed a similar theory, stating that a country must become self-sufficient if it is to survive. Controlling the origin of raw materials and turning them into product output markets has become a strategic need related to national interests. In the first 75 years of the 19th century, Western countries occupied an average of 210,000 square kilometers of colonies per year, and in the last 25 years, they occupied an average of 620,000 square kilometers of colonies per year.
From the end of the 15th century to the middle of the 19th century, the colonialist countries occupied only 3.18 million square kilometers of territory in Africa, known as the "last continent". In the last 25 years of the 19th century, Europe's interest in Africa increased. Intensified, occupying 25.69 million square kilometers of land in Africa. Due to the rapid industrialization and population growth in Europe, the demand for vegetable oils, vegetable fibers, rubber and certain mineral resources has increased. These products can be obtained in Africa with cheap industrial products. The need for new raw materials has led to the need for new raw materials in Africa. Fierce competition for the origin of raw materials. The colonization of the African interior by colonialist countries began with the gradual advancement method pioneered by France in Senegal in the late 19th century. That is, using farms planting peanuts or oil palms as advance bases, using drugs to treat tropical diseases, and using local indigenous people to form mercenary armies. The rivers pushed into the hinterland in a way that was far more effective than Britain's coastal penetration and was therefore copied by other colonial powers.
In the 1870s, the discovery of huge diamond, gold and other minerals in South Africa spurred other colonial countries to explore similar mineral deposits in other parts of Africa. The land contested was no longer limited to areas suitable for growing crops, but also wastelands, swamps, deserts and no-man's land. All become objects of contention. At the Berlin Conference of 1884-1885, the principle that "only actual occupation can prove the right to rule a colony" was established. Countries that had occupied the coastal areas of Africa, such as Britain, France and Portugal, quickly signed agreements and treaties with local chiefs. , expanding their power to the interior. Emerging industrial powers—Germany, Belgium, and Italy—have also joined the race for Africa.
From 1885 to 1900, European countries completed the partition of Africa. In addition to the two politically independent countries of Ethiopia and Liberia, traditional African kingdoms such as Ashanti, Dahomey, Sokoto, and Buganda, as well as the Transvaal and Orange Freedom established by Africans of European descent States and other countries have become colonies or protectorates of Western countries. Egypt was nominally an independent country but was completely under British control. In Asia, the Russian Empire's colonial expansion was distinctive, adopting the method of assimilating the culture and society of indigenous peoples, advancing into Siberia, the Far East, the Caucasus, and Central Asia. And tried its best to penetrate into China; it successively occupied the Great Ruz, Middle Ruz, Little Ruz, Khiva Khanate, Bukhara Khanate, Kokand Khanate, and penetrated into China's Xinjiang region, Outer Mongolia and Manchuria. .
By 1876, Tsarist Russia, an Orthodox Christian country located in eastern Europe and northern Asia, had occupied 17 million square kilometers of land. France conquered Annan, Laos, and Cambodia. Britain, located in western Europe, occupied the Malay Peninsula and North Borneo in Southeast Asia, and controlled the Persian Gulf and the southern Arabian Peninsula in the Middle East. In Oceania, Germany, a rising capitalist country in central Europe, purchased colonies such as the Caroline Islands and Mariana Islands from Spain. In addition to directly conquering colonies, colonial countries also turned some economically backward countries into semi-colonies, such as China (Qing Dynasty), Korea, Siam (now Thailand), Persia (now Iran), Afghanistan, the Ottoman Empire, etc. In these countries It seized the rights and interests of customs, transportation, commerce, road construction, mining, building factories, setting up banks, and training the army. By the beginning of the 20th century, colonial countries and colonies accounted for 85% of the world's land area. Several major powers have completely controlled the world's politics and economy. The formerly self-sufficient countries are increasingly included in the economic scope of the century. An international division of labor has emerged. The major industrial countries manufacture and sell high-end products, while other countries have become their raw materials and supply bases. . Colonial competition also intensified the resurgence of militarism because the distribution of colonies among countries was uneven. In addition to Britain and France, which are still powerful, Spain and Portugal, which have long declined, still control large colonies, while emerging countries such as the United States, Germany, Japan and Italy only occupy some "remaining areas" that are small in size and poor in resources. As the competition for colonies became more intense, major colonial countries were involved in a series of diplomatic and military conflicts from the late 19th century to the early 20th century, such as the first Moroccan crisis and the second Moroccan crisis between Britain, France and Germany. The Moroccan crisis, the Fashoda crisis between Britain and France, the two Boer Wars, the Spanish-American War, the Russo-Japanese War, the Italian-Turkish War and a series of other conflicts.
From 1900 to the eve of the outbreak of World War I in 1914, colonial countries fought for new colonies or protected existing colonies, forming extremely complex conflicts of interest: Germany challenged Britain's world hegemony; Japan Challenge Russia's hegemony in Asia; Russia challenges Britain's hegemony in Asia; Britain uses France to contain Germany; Britain uses Japan to contain Russia; France uses Russia to contain Germany; Germany uses the Austro-Hungarian Empire and the Ottoman Empire to encircle Russia... Consolidating the existing colonies, two major groups were formed: the British, French and Russian Entente and the German, Austrian and Italian Allies. World War I ended with the defeat of the Allies (Italy defected). As punishment, the German Empire in central and western Europe was destroyed, its homeland was reduced by one-seventh, and it was deprived of all overseas colonies. The Austro-Hungarian Empire in central Europe collapsed, and its territory was divided between neighboring countries or formed into new countries. The Ottoman Empire The empire lost all its possessions in Arabia. With the modernization of the economy, market adjustment, urbanization development, social and cultural progress, national liberation and the rise of the anti-colonial movement, the old colonial system had been greatly weakened by the 1920s, and the colonial countries had realized that they could not Acquire new colonies through warfare. The colonies that were deprived of the defeated countries became the mandate areas of the League of Nations and were handed over to the victorious countries for management. Although they were still colonies in essence, the terms of the Mandate of the League of Nations already stipulated that the trustee countries must promote the welfare of the residents of the mandated area and, at appropriate times, time to establish an independent country.
By the 1930s, a new trend of colonialism emerged - the fascist colonial view and the concept of "living space" derived from geopolitical theory. After the Russo-Japanese War, Japan also began to put forward the slogan that Asian countries should resist the aggression of the white world under Japan's "leadership", and in the 1930s it evolved into the "Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere" theory. Other fascist countries such as Italy and Spain also successively put forward the slogans of "fascist imperialism" and "Great Spanishism". Hitler did not advocate Germany's overseas expansion in his book "Mein Kampf" and believed that overseas expansion was not as beneficial to Germany as expansion in Europe. However, he later approved the colonial requirements in the Nazi Party's "25-Point Program" and in 1933 Later in the year he encouraged the activities of the German colonial movement.
In 1931, Japan launched the September 18th Incident and occupied Northeast China, announcing that the repartition of the world had begun again. This was followed by Italy's invasion of Ethiopia in 1935. The causes of the Second World War were very complex and cannot simply be attributed to the development of traditional forms of colonialism. However, the variant of colonialism - the "living space" theory and the struggle for "living space" were obviously the main reasons for its outbreak. one of the reasons. Due to the impact of World War II, the remaining major colonial powers after World War I, such as Britain, France, the Netherlands, Belgium and Italy, were all weakened in the war. During the war, the national industries of unoccupied Allied colonies, such as India, East Africa, Nigeria, and the Belgian Congo, developed to a certain extent, and the division of labor system within the colonial empire was broken. At the same time, as Japan and Germany weakened the power of the Allies by fostering nationalist movements in the colonies, the national liberation movements in the Allied colonies also developed to a certain extent under the auspices of the Axis powers during the war. After the end of World War II, the colonial liberation movement first broke out in the Dutch East Indies, British Burma, French Indochina and other places that had been occupied by Japan. Nationalists in these regions once cooperated with the Japanese occupation forces in the war to establish nominally "independent" puppet states. On the eve of its surrender, Japan handed over power and weapons to local nationalists, allowing them to create chaos for the Allies.
On August 17, 1945, Indonesia first declared independence, and Vietnam declared independence on September 2. The wave of colonial independence movements immediately spread to Burma, India, Malaya, the Philippines and other Asian countries and regions. By the time Cambodia became independent in 1953, all French, Dutch and American colonies in Asia had become independent countries. For example, the United Kingdom was once a colonial empire. After World War II, it passed the "Law of Westminster" to grant independent dominions the right to independence. Some countries, such as Canada, declared independence, but these countries still belong to the Commonwealth. For example, Australia's constitution stipulates that the King of England is the head of state. After entering the 1950s, especially after the Bandung Conference in 1955, inspired by independent colonial and semi-colonial countries, this movement developed into Africa.
After the Second Middle East War in 1956, the United Kingdom announced the policy of "retreating east of Suez." From 1957 to 1963, the United Kingdom successively withdrew from Ceylon (today's Sri Lanka), Malaya, North Borneo, The Straits Settlements (Singapore, Malacca and Penang), South Yemen, Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar, Trusil Oman (now the United Arab Emirates), Zanzibar, Kenya and Uganda. The post-war wave of independence in African countries began with the independence of Anglo-Egyptian Sudan in 1956 and Ghana in 1957.
Starting from 1960, the African colonial independence movement reached its climax. Within one year of 1960, 17 countries in Africa declared independence, which was called the "African Independence Year". Among them, 13 countries were former French colonies and 3 countries It is a former British colony (including Italian Somalia), and 1 is a former Belgian colony.
By the end of the 1960s, most of the colonies owned by Britain and France had declared independence. Portugal, the earliest colonial empire, was also the last country to abandon its colonies. Portuguese Guinea, Mozambique, and Angola gained independence in 1975 after years of war. [1]. Colonialism became a historical term.

Introduction: What are the ways anthropology believes humans came into being?

　　Anthropology is the study of human physique and social culture.
　　
　　As the name of the discipline, ethnology was first used, and anthropology was used later. The two were once inclusive of each other. Sometimes ethnology included anthropology, sometimes anthropology included ethnology, and sometimes they were synonymous. In some areas, the name of the discipline of ethnology was gradually replaced by anthropology. Ethnology, English Ethnology originates from the Greek Ethnos and ogia, which means the study of nations. This term is used since the discipline began in the 19th century. When the French physicist Ampere formulated the subject classification table in 1830, he divided it into a separate subject. The term anthropology was first used by the German scholar M. Hundlt to refer to the study of human anatomy and human physiology, which is different from the later meaning of anthropology. In 1839, the world's earliest Ethnological Society was established in Paris. The society's program states that ethnological research aims to "identify the elements of the human race, its physical structure, intellectual and moral characteristics, language, and historical traditions." In 1859, the French Anthropological Society was established, believing that anthropology studies human life and all aspects of life, and attached ethnology to anthropology. Russia established the Ethnology Branch within the Geographical Society in 1845, the Austrian Ethnology Society was established in 1894, and Germany established the Society for Anthropology, Ethnology and Prehistory in 1869. To this day, in Russia, Germany, Austria and other continental European countries, the word human is used to refer to physical anthropology, whose research object is the physical form of humans; ethnology studies human society and culture. The British established the Ethnological Society in London as early as 1843. It was not until the London Anthropological Society was established in 18663 that anthropology included the study of physical fitness and culture. In 1871, the two societies merged into the School of Anthropology. Later, the part that studies culture was called social anthropology. . The United States established the Ethnological Society in New York in 1842 and the Washington Anthropological Association in 1879. In 1901, anthropology was divided into two parts: physical and cultural, and the name cultural anthropology was created. In 1902, the American Anthropological Association was established. In fact, ethnology, cultural anthropology, and social anthropology refer to the same discipline. Lévi-Strauss, a leading figure in contemporary anthropology, pointed out in response to the debate about cultural anthropology and social anthropology: "Cultural anthropology and The scope of social anthropology is actually the same, except that the former starts from the study of technology and things, and then extends to the super-technical aspects of consciousness and political activities that determine social lifestyles; while the latter starts from the study of social life. Then it comes to technical things that express consciousness and political activity. It's like two books with the same content in chapters, but the order and page arrangement are different. "Famous Chinese scholar Yang Kun also pointed out: "The study of human social life is called cultural anthropology or social anthropology, which is what we call ethnology. " (Yang Kun: "Introduction to Ethnology", Beijing, China Social Sciences Press, 1984, 1st edition, page 7) Therefore, although the title of this article is anthropology, it is also talking about ethnology.
　　
　　Anthropology is a young discipline, with only about 150 years since its birth (if according to the academic circles, it was published as Darwin's "The Origin of Species"). 1859 is the mark, which is exactly 150 years ago), but the accumulation of anthropological knowledge has existed since ancient times. The ancient Egyptians painted images of different groups such as Egyptians, Asians or Semites, southern blacks, and western whites in the pyramids. In his famous work "History", Herodotus, the "Father of History" in the West and the ancient Greek philosopher, vividly described the physical characteristics, living environment, language, customs, systems and beliefs of many ethnic groups along the Mediterranean coast. In addition, ancient Roman G.J. Caesar's "Gaul Wars" and C. Tacitus's "Germania" are also such documents. In ancient China, there were countless such documents. Ancient documents from the pre-Qin period have recorded the existence of different ethnic groups such as Dongyi, Xirong, Nanman, and Beidi. "The Classic of Mountains and Seas" describes a large number of ethnic groups with very different physical characteristics in foreign countries, such as the "Guanxi Kingdom", "Jiaoshan Kingdom", "Long Arm Kingdom", "One-Arm People" and so on. The biographies of the Xiongnu, Southwest Yi, Dongyue, and Nanyue in Sima Qian's "Historical Records" created the style of writing biographies for ethnic minorities in my country. Later, the "Twenty-Four Histories", "The Spring and Autumn Period of Wu and Yue" (Zhao Ye of the Eastern Han Dynasty), "Huayang Guozhi" (Jin Changchu), "Man Shu" (Tang Fan Chuo), "Lingwai Dai Da Reply" (Song and Zhou Dynasties) Non), "Qiannan Shilue" (Qing Ai Bida)...; Regarding foreign records, there are "Buddha's Country" by Faxian of the Eastern Jin Dynasty, "Da Tang Western Regions" by Tang Xuanzang, and "Zhubo Zhi" by Zhao Rushi of the Song Dynasty. ", Yuan Wang Dayuan's "Daoyizhilue" and Zhou Daguan's "Zhenla Customs", Ming Mahuan's "Yingya Shenglan" and Fei Xin's "Xingcha Shenglan", etc.
　　
　　The Enlightenment thoughts of Montesquieu and others in the 18th century, the progress of natural science in the 19th century, and the biological progress symbolized by C.R. Darwin's "Origin of Species" The chemical theory and the views of social evolution in the 18th and 19th centuries are all the basis for the cultural and social evolution thoughts of the anthropological evolution school in the 19th century. The first school of anthropology - the evolutionary school (also known as the classical evolution school or the linear/unilineal evolution school to distinguish it from the later neo-evolutionary school) emerged in the mid-19th century. It was based on a group of professional anthropologists. And they have always been the main representatives, including E.B. Taylor of the United Kingdom, L.H. Morgan of the United States, J.F. MacLennan of the United Kingdom, and J.J. Bachofen of Switzerland. They believe that human beings have the same origin, have the same essence, and have a common psychology, so they have the same culture and a common path for social development, from low-level to high-level evolution. Taylor is known as the father of anthropology. He proposed in "Primitive Culture" that culture evolves. In "The Blood and Marriage System of the Human Family", Morgan constructed the development history of the family on the basis of studying the evolution of marriage and family, and initially raised the issue of social evolution. In "Ancient Society", he further comprehensively developed the idea of ​​social evolution and demonstrated the development process of human beings from the age of ignorance through the age of barbarism to the age of civilization. Due to inherent theoretical flaws, the classical theory of evolution was opposed by many later schools of thought until the emergence of the new theory of evolution.
　　
　　The communication school is divided into the German and Austrian communication schools and the British communication school. The former is represented by German Ratzel, Frobenius, Grebner and Austrian Catholic priest W. Schmidt. They believe that human creativity is extremely limited, and that every culture is produced once in a central area and then spreads. The latter was represented by Rivers, G. Elliott-Smith and his student W.J. Perry in England. They claimed that various advanced cultural factors spread from the Nile River, the birthplace and center of world civilization, and promoted Pan-Egyptianism. Since this theory lacked scientific factual basis, it was not inherited later.
　　
　　The Historical School followed the Communication School and was the American Historical School. Its founder was F. Boas (also translated as Boas) and other representatives. They are all his students, such as A.L. Kroeber, R.H. Rowe, E. Sapir, C. Wisler, A.A. Gordon Weser and others. Boas advocated simply describing specific cultural and communication processes without making theoretical generalizations. His disciples openly opposed evolution. Lowe's "Primitive Society" (1920) comprehensively denied and attacked Morgan's evolutionary theory. Although this school also adopts a critical attitude towards the communication school, it basically accepts the communication theory. Therefore, the academic community generally refers to the communication school and the historical school together as the Cultural-Historical School (Cultural-Historical School).
　　
　　The Annals School of Sociology　 originated from the Annals School of Sociology in France and appeared at about the same time as the Communication School. The main representatives include Durkheim (also translated as Durkheim) and M. Mauss. Durkheim founded the "Annals of Sociology" in Paris in 1896, so it was called the "Annals of Sociology" school. Their theoretical basis is the positivism of philosopher A. Comte. Mauss pointed out that society is a system that "self-regulates" and tends to equilibrium. The role of each element of the system is to maintain the integration and adaptation of the system. He inspired later functionalist thought and influenced an entire generation of European sociologists and anthropologists.
　　
　　Functional School　After World War I, the functional school of great influence appeared in the UK, the main representative of which was B.K. Malinovs Key and A.R. Radcliffe-Brown. This school of thought does not attach importance to the study of the history of people of all ethnic groups, but emphasizes going deep into ethnic communities to conduct comprehensive current situation investigations, and vigorously trains and dispatches students to various colonies to do field work. In theory, they emphasize the functional role of culture and believe that the reason why each culture exists must have its use in social life. A national community is a whole, and its entire social life must be examined from the standpoint of this whole. , and all aspects of life are closely related. The theory of the functional school had a great influence on Chinese anthropology before the founding of the People's Republic of China.
　　
　　Psychological School　In the 1930s, the American historical school differentiated into the Psychological School. The main representatives are Boas's students R. Benedict and M. Mead. They believe that individual psychological activities determine cultural and social conditions. The excellent psychological quality of advanced nations creates advanced cultural models, while the abnormal psychological qualities of backward nations can only create backward cultural models. Therefore, the latter must change their backward cultural models with the help of the former. Although this school of thought verbally opposes racism based on differences in physical appearance, it actually advocates that there are hidden differences in the psychology of superiority and inferiority between ethnic groups, which is also a racist view, and is therefore also called the school of racial psychology.
　　
　　After the Second World War, some new changes occurred in Western anthropology. There has been a change in attitude towards Marxism and the evolutionary school, with some anthropologists combining Marxism with anthropology. As a result, various new trends of thought emerged from studying Marxist works and using Marxism to study anthropological issues, such as the "Frankfurt School" trend of thought represented by H. Marcuse in the Federal Republic of Germany, and the "Frankfurt School" trend in France represented by M. Godrelieu. The "structural Marxist school" of thought represented by M. Harris, the "cultural materialism" trend of thought represented by M. Harris and the "Dialectics of Social Life" trend of thought represented by R. Murphy in the United States. At the same time, there is no longer any open opposition to the evolutionists as before. A new school of thought defending the theory of evolution also emerged in the United States. American anthropology once restored Morgan's reputation and even regarded him as the father of American ethnology.
　　
　　The structuralist school is mainly represented by French C. Levi-Strauss. He applied the phonological analysis method of structural linguistics to the field of ethnological research. By analyzing the structural relationships between natural phenomena, we can deduce the structural relationships between social phenomena. British scholar E.R. Leach is also one of the representatives of this school of thought. From the late 1960s to the early 1970s, the influence of this school reached its peak, and then gradually declined.
　　
　　The new evolutionary school of thought　 is represented by American ethnologists L.A. White and J.H. Steward. They defended the evolutionary theory of Morgan and others, and put forward some of their own views, such as White's universal theory of evolution and energy theory, Steward's multi-line theory of evolution, etc. Their disciples E.R. Service and M. Sahlins devoted themselves to synthesizing their evolutionary theories and believed that "general evolution" and "special evolution" are different aspects of human evolution. They are the theory of evolution that has been perfected.
　　
　　The cultural relativity school of thought　 is represented by M.J. Herskovits. He believes that the culture of a nation loses any meaning apart from its own nation and era. All phenomena of any specific culture are isolated, will not be repeated, and have their own characteristics. Therefore, the cultures of different nations cannot be compared. Cultures have nothing in common, let alone common laws. The value of all national cultures is relative.
　　
　　The New Psychological School of Thought　 This is the product of the small-scale psychological anthropology revival movement that has been launched in the United States since the 1960s. Representative figures include J. Whiting, I.L. Child, R.A. Levin and others. They made some new developments based on the old psychology school's study of culture and personality, and proposed the so-called "cognitive anthropology." This school of thought currently has a certain influence in the United States and is a noteworthy trend.

Ethnomusicology is motivated by

When defining ethnomusicology, we often start by delineating its research objects and methods, whether it is the original comparative musicology or the later ethnomusicology, and today the word "Enthnomusicology" is translated into ethnomusicology or music. Ethnology, or simply musicology, musical cultural anthropology and other debates are closely related to the continuous changes and expansion of the research objects of this discipline from the beginning to the present. Therefore, this article only provides a historical review and reflection on the evolution of ethnomusicology research objects.
The emergence and research objects of comparative musicology
Ethnomusicology was originally called comparative musicology. The name of comparative musicology was first used in Germany after the 20th century. The English name is "Comparative Musicology". In fact, the use of comparative research methods in non-European music research began as early as the 17th century, but the establishment of this discipline was It is marked by Adler's "Categories, Methods and Purposes of Musicology" in 1885 and Alexander John Ellis's "Scale of Nations". Its research object is the music culture of races and nationalities outside Europe, just as Saxophone defined the music of foreign cultures. The establishment of this discipline and the establishment of research objects are closely related to the historical background and the position of the researchers at that time. First of all, the emergence and development of comparative musicology are closely related to the rise and expansion of European colonialism. Beginning in the 18th century, developed European capitalist countries successively entered Asia, Africa, and Latin America. Western anthropologists, historians, and cultural scientists who entered these regions first opened up the traditions of these non-European countries to the outside world. The door to culture. They use the viewpoints and methods of Western scholars to try to understand, recognize and grasp the special cultures of these countries and nations that make them novel, and want to make these cultures, which are different from European culture and unknown to Europeans, public to the public. Coupled with the classical evolution school and the scientific understanding of human evolution and primitive social economy by Marx and Engels, ethnology as a science emerged and emerged in Europe and the United States in the 1860s and 1870s. The term Enthnology was first coined in 1830. The Frenchman Jean-Jacques Ampell proposed that ethnological and anthropological societies were established in France, the United States, Britain, Germany and Italy from the 1930s to the 1970s. Comparative musicology came into being when ethnomusicology entered a new stage of development in the 1980s and 1990s. During this period, a professionally trained ethnological team emerged in Europe and the United States, which carried out worldwide and purposeful ethnological fieldwork. Exotic folk art attracted the attention of scholars. At the same time, many cities in Europe and the United States have established anthropology and ethnology museums, which have collected many non-European musical instruments and related musical relics and manuscripts. The materials recording the ethnic music of Asia, Africa, and the Americas have increased significantly, making people more aware of the national music. Attention to the music culture of non-European regions further increased. In addition, Edison invented the phonograph in 1877, which had an immeasurable promotion effect on the study of non-literary non-European folk music. On these foundations, the discipline of comparative musicology, influenced by many studies in ethnology, was born in response to the strong and extensive social and contemporary needs. The British linguist, physicist and mathematician Ellis and European scholars such as Adler and Espita contributed to the establishment and development of comparative musicology.
It can be seen that the foreign music culture studied by comparative musicology is relative to the main culture of the colonists at that time, and also relative to the cultural system of the European scholars who initially participated in comparative musicology research. Compared with its original European music culture knowledge system, the unknown field has become the object of comparative musicology research. In this case, foreign music culture = non-European music culture, which forms the relative relationship between European culture, especially European urban art and music culture. A comparative study of non-European musical cultures. In essence, it is a kind of research conducted with Europe as a whole as a center and the European nations as the standpoint.
With the continuous development of the discipline, the progress of the study of human culture as a whole and the participation of scholars from non-European countries of different races in comparative musicology research, the research environment and stance of comparative musicology have changed and expanded, and its research directions There have also been expansions and changes in nature of the subject, and the original name of comparative musicology has been replaced by ethnomusicology.
The establishment of comparative musicology to ethnomusicology
We have to admit that the development of music is often driven by other disciplines. In terms of creation, the factions of Western urban art music are often based on literature and fine arts. Following in its footsteps, such as the emergence of Classicalism, Romanticism, and Impressionism, in terms of academic research, the development of history, comparative studies, and ethnology have deeply influenced and guided the development of the corresponding disciplines of musicology. The establishment of comparative musicology was influenced by ethnological research, and under the influence of the development of ethnology, it eventually became ethnomusicology.
After entering the 20th century, ethnology has produced many schools of thought and put forward many new perspectives. The Communication School was a school of thought that had great influence in European ethnology in the 1940s. The pioneer of this school, the German scholar Ratzel, proposed placing cultural research in a specific geographical environment and paying attention to the history of each nation. Conditional research methods; Malenowski, a representative figure of functionalism, believes that each culture is an indivisible whole, and must pay attention to the study of current life and status quo, and oppose the colonists' brutal interference in the culture of the indigenous people; American Boaz The school, also known as the cultural relativism school, puts forward views and theoretical ideas such as cultural standards are relative and cultural treasures of various ethnic groups cannot be compared. We can find corresponding shadows of these positions, views and theories in the study of comparative musicology. In particular, the rise of the American school represented by Boaz led to greater development of comparative musicology after World War II. That is, while paying attention to the study of non-European ethnic music, it began to pay attention to the study of the music of its own ethnic groups. Boaz's views on the equality of cultural values, the incomparability of cultures, and his opposition to Eurocentrism shook the relative foundation of the object of comparative musicology research, that is, the foundation of Europe as a whole as a large central nation, and broke through the comparative music The limitations of non-European music studied in this study raise questions about whether cultures should be compared with each other.
At the same time, American anthropologists began to believe that various anthropological research methods can not only study non-matriarchal cultures, but should also be used more to explore the cultures to which they belong. As a result, American anthropologists began to devote more energy to Study America's own culture. At the same time, some anthropologists began to actively participate in field recording work of national music with this idea, which is rare in the field of European comparative musicology. Although the participation of American anthropologists was unable to go into depth due to limitations of their own musical abilities and only formed an ideological trend, this ideological trend has brought about great changes in the study of comparative musicology. It caused some musicians in the United States to switch from the music world to the anthropology world, and some anthropologists to study musical behavior (and analyze it technically). It also led to the emergence of this ideological trend in European research institutions.
The result of all this is that after World War II, almost all comparative music scholars began to turn their attention to the anthropological research direction of existing natural ethnomusic. As a result, the research scope and stance of comparative musicology have undergone qualitative changes, from a geographically ethnic and Eurocentric perspective on the world to cultural relativism, that is, a comprehensive examination and study of all ethnic groups (including the music culture of this nation). As a result, comparative musicology withdrew without making more comparisons, and was replaced by the name ethnomusicology.
In addition, it is worth noting that the participation of Chinese, Japanese and Eastern European scholars in comparative musicology research in the first half of the 20th century also played a relatively large role in the transformation of this discipline. They began to study their own national music culture before the United States began to pay attention to the study of its own national culture. To be honest, the initial research on local music culture by American scholars was not as pure as that of scholars from these countries. After all, American scholars are mostly immigrants or descendants of European countries such as Britain and Germany, and their cultural systems and views are of the same origin as those of Europe. However, their research on local culture was initially focused on tracing the origins of Indian folk music in the North American continent. From a certain perspective, it was a study of foreign music culture, but the research viewpoints they proposed on local culture and its subsequent development are extremely important for breaking through Eurocentrism. Before this, many scholars did indeed conduct research on local music culture. In the study of Oriental comparative musicology, Wang Guangqi of China wrote "Research on Eastern and Western Musical Systems" as early as 1926, followed by "Music of Oriental Nations" in 1929 and "History of Chinese Music" in 1934. Japan Naoio Tanabe founded the Oriental Music Society in 1936 and wrote "Oriental Musical Instruments and Their History" in 1948; Hungarian composer and musician Bartók and musicologist Kodaly began to study Hungary in 1906 and 1905 respectively. He collected and researched folk songs, and published "Hungarian Folk Songs" and "On Hungarian Folk Music" respectively. Although they still use the perspective and methods of comparative musicology to study local music culture and try to draw certain conclusions from the comparison of Eastern and Western music, which is still within the category of comparative musicology, the act of their participation in the research itself , and their own non-European characteristics and positions have caused a change in the position of comparative musicology research. Although it is different from the guiding ideology of American scholars, it has played a similar role in breaking the foreign cultural barriers of comparative musicology research. The framework promoted the establishment of ethnomusicology. After World War II, the Dutchman P. Kenst proposed using the term Enthno-Musicology to replace Comparative Musicology, which was first accepted and fixed by Americans. In 1959, Kunst's "Ethnomusicology" came out, and this discipline was officially established.
Analysis and reflections on various theories on the research objects of ethnomusicology
Since comparative musicology was renamed ethnomusicology due to changes in research objects, the academic community has been discussing how to demarcate the field of ethnomusicology. The interesting thing is that this discussion has not yet ended, but the development of society has continuously expanded the research objects of ethnomusicology. Folk music and the popular music that have developed rapidly with the industrialized society have undisputedly become national The object of musicological research. Therefore, how to delineate the field of ethnomusicology research has become an issue worthy of people's consideration.
First, let’s take a look at the views of each faction. Kunst clarified his point of view at the beginning of his "Ethnomusicology":
The research objects of this discipline include the music of all races and nationalities from the so-called uncivilized people to the cultural nations. Category of non-Western art music. Ethnic music also takes sociological issues such as the introduction of foreign music, that is, the impact of the combination of musical elements of different natures, as its research objects. Western art music and popular music are not included in this field. Inside. [1]
Merriam believed in his "Research on Ethnomusicology" that "the purpose and focus of ethnomusicology are not significantly different from those of other disciplines" and "its special The difference lies in the special methods used, especially in the point where it is considered necessary to combine the two types of data, anthropology and musicology", and emphasizes that "ethnomusicology usually consists of two different parts: music and ethnology. Composition, it can be considered that its main task is not to emphasize any one side, but to adopt a characteristic method that takes both sides into account and make them integrated", proposing "the study of music in culture" [2]. Some people believe that ethnomusicology is the study of all musical cultures and can replace musicology as an edgeless music discipline. The author believes this is incorrect. Merriam explains when talking about the first stage of the ethnomusicologist's work: "The collection of data generally means field research in areas outside Europe and the United States. "[2] This sentence should represent his view on the research object or focus of ethnomusicology.
Nettel classified the research objects of ethnomusicology in "What is Ethnomusicology". He believed that this discipline "mainly explores three types of music. The first type is about the music of preliterate societies (music of nonliterate), the second category is various kinds of music in Asian and northern African cultures, that is, the music culture of China, Japan, Java, Bali, Southwest Asia, India, Iran, and Arabic-speaking countries (and regions), and the third category is folk customs Music (folk music) can be defined as music passed down orally in the above-mentioned high-level Asian cultures and Western civilization. "[3]
In his "Introduction to Ethnomusicology", the American scholar Hood gave a more detailed explanation of the research objects of ethnomusicology based on the specific conditions of the United States. He not only mentioned the research objects of ethnomusicology outside the United States. The study of culture, the study of native American indigenous music, the study of folk music, and the study of emerging electronic music - the famous Beatles [4], but also avoided European urban art music.
The above is the view of European and American scholars. Oriental ethnomusicologists represented by Japanese scholars who emerged in the mid-to-late 20th century have gradually attracted the attention of the world’s ethnomusicological circles with their different cultural and historical backgrounds and perspectives. This issue also puts forward its own views. Japanese scholar Mr. Shigeo Kishibe believes: “Comparative musicology became ethnomusicology mainly because scholars studied natural nations, and later added the art music of oriental high-culture nations. "[5] Mr. Osamu Yamaguchi believes that "ethnomusicology is one of the various methods of understanding ethnic music, that is, an academic method of understanding" [6], which means that the object of ethnomusicology is ethnic music. , he defined national music: “National music is an item among the huge cultural matters owned by various ethnic groups and occupies a certain position in it. National music is one of the products of symbolic behavior that mainly uses "sound" as the medium of expression. "[6] In China, since the introduction of the subject of ethnomusicology in 1979, debates over the research objects of this subject have begun. Based on the special circumstances of Chinese musicology, this controversy also has its particularities. From 1980 to 1988, the core of the controversy was whether "ethnomusicology" was the study of "ethnic folk music." Later, Mr. Wang Yaohua and Mr. Du Yaxiong sorted out Chinese traditional music and concluded that traditional music includes folk music, court music, literati music, and religious music [7]. Chinese folk music includes my country’s traditional music and new music [8]. Mr. Zhao Songguang and Mr. Zhao fēng@① proposed using sinology-misicology to express the study of Chinese national music, that is, the Chinese music of the Han nation and various ethnic groups within China. Mr. Huang Xiangpeng believes that “this subject is the study of traditional Chinese music” and emphasizes that “discussing issues using ethnology, anthropology, geography, and folklore will inevitably involve differences in musical forms” [9].
Recently, many scholars believe that music is not ethnic without music, so ethnomusicology should be integrated with musicology to study all music and things related to music. Some people suggest that ethnomusicology is only special in its research methods. Using cultural and anthropological methods to study all music is ethnomusicology, and it should be renamed musical cultural anthropology. At the same time, in the process of controversies over research objects, people are constantly proposing new research positions and methods. For example, the cultural perspective that began in the 1970s looked at music research and valued humanities, and the global perspective that began in the 1990s all focused on this subject. The categories and definitions are discussed accordingly.
To sum up, we can first conclude that ethnomusicology as a discipline has been established and truly exists both in the world and in China. As a complete discipline, it must have its own research purposes, research objects and research methods that are different from other disciplines. Among them, methods and objects complement each other. Special research objects require special research methods. Special research methods have their own adapted research objects. They also determine the particularity and independence of a discipline, such as philosophy, aesthetics, history, Anthropology each has its own unique research methods and corresponding research fields. Ethnomusicology is a discipline that combines ethnology and musicology. As Merriam emphasized, “Ethnomusicology is usually composed of two different parts: music and ethnology. Its main tasks can be considered to be the same. Rather than emphasizing any one side, we adopt a characteristic approach that takes both sides into consideration and integrates them into one” [10]. Therefore, it is necessary to study ethnomusicology from a cultural perspective and anthropological method, and to study ethnomusicology from a cultural perspective and a global perspective. Ethnomusicology has its own special research methods. These understandings are correct and correct. It is because ethnomusicology has such special methods that it defines its research fields and objects, that is, the objects and fields suitable for research using these methods. Therefore, the research objects of ethnomusicology are not infinitely broad, but can and must be delimited.
No matter how ethnomusicologists argue, it all ultimately comes down to what ethnomusicologists have studied. We have seen that in non-European countries such as China and Japan, many scholars are devoted to the study of their own national music, and many scholars are involved in the study of music culture outside their own homeland, such as Mr. Takuze Genichi of Japan’s research on West Asian music, China Mr. Du Yaxiong’s research on Hungarian music, Mr. Wang Yaohua’s research on Japanese Ryukyu music, Mr. Luo Yifeng’s research on Southeast Asian music, Mr. Chen Ziming’s research on South Asian music culture, etc. From this point of view, it is not advisable to use country, continent or even ethnic differences to delineate the objects of ethnomusicology research. It is impossible to cover the research field of ethnomusicology only by studying the traditional music of one country.
Since scholars have already begun to conduct research on global ethnic music culture from a global perspective, we should put the music culture of all ethnic groups in front of us equally for research and summary. The author very much agrees with Mr. Osamu Yamaguchi's definition of national music, that is: national music is a product of symbolic behavior that mainly uses "sound" as the medium of expression. In other words, the object of ethnomusicology research should be the culture characterized by sound. There are two key points here. One is "music". No matter what it is like or why it is like this, whether it is an instrument or a ritual, whether it emphasizes cultural background, group or individual, there must first be music. This most basic positioning is related to everything. The second is existence. Whether you want to trace the roots or look forward to the future, whether you use the diachronic method or the synchronic method, there must be a music culture alive in front of you, and then present it and then explore it. Of course, there are also diachronic methods to sort out from front to back, but it is essential to find the corresponding musical phenomena related to it today. In fact, this summary is inseparable from the method of this discipline. The method of fieldwork in anthropology can be said to be indispensable to this discipline and makes it independent of other musicology disciplines. Field work is the only way for every ethnomusician, and no ethnomusicology scholar can Complete his project in the library. Then, the musical culture that can and is suitable for field work, that is, the culture characterized by sound, becomes the research object of ethnomusicology.
Clarifying this point is conducive to better application of ethnomusicological research methods and targeted ethnomusicological research. This point deserves the attention of ethnomusicologists of Asian, African and other non-European ethnic groups in particular. Because the research on ethnomusicology in these countries is an imported discipline, when integrating with the West, it will inevitably encounter changes in perspective and the impact of different cultural backgrounds. For example, the West classifies the study of non-native music into the category of ethnomusicology. This cannot be done in non-Western countries. Chinese scholars of European music history certainly do not agree to classify their research objects into the category of ethnomusicology, and it is not suitable to do so. In addition, these countries have a long history of music, but most of them have underdeveloped notation, which has become a dumb music history expressed in words. And because these dumb music histories have more words and fewer music scores, they cover fields that are very different from Western music history. It’s not the same – it’s not the history of musicians or works. The research methods and results of it are also different from Western methods. Therefore, when it comes to this field, ethnomusicologists in these countries should not blindly copy Western ethnic music. Scholars’ research concepts on the history of Western music. Due to the early popularization and application of Western notation, most of the works in the history of art and music can be reduced to music, and many of them are still circulating today, which meets the conditions of ethnomusicology research. As long as it is used from the new perspective of ethnology, By re-researching with new ethnological methods, we can obtain results that are different from previous historical research, such as the ethnomusicological research on Beethoven. But it is hard to imagine that Chinese ethnomusicologists’ research on Wan Baochang and Li Yannian will achieve such results. In the eyes of ethnomusicologists, Western music culture is nothing more than music culture with music scores recorded and music culture without music scores - folk culture that is classified as oral and heart-to-heart teaching is mostly suitable for the research methods of ethnomusicology. Therefore, those who think that ethnic culture It is not surprising that musicology is the study of all musical cultures. However, many scholars from countries with rich mute music culture like China should have a clear understanding of this argument and better understand the particularity of ethnomusicological research objects when conducting research on their own country's music culture. This is very important.

What are the main theories on the origin of literature? What are the main advocates and views of each theory? Please help~~·

　　Studying the origin of literature
　　 can not only explain the mystery of the emergence of literature from a genetic perspective, but also
　　 elucidate the relationship between literature and social life, and various societies. The relationship between ideology and
　　 correctly understand the nature of literature.
　　Chinese and foreign theories on the origin of literature　Since ancient times, many literary and art theorists
　　have expressed their views on the origin of literature, and some of them are quite influential
　　There are the following types:
　　①Imitation theory. Democritus of ancient Greece first proposed that art originated from the imitation of nature. Aristotle also believed in Poetics that poetry
　　 originated from the imitation of nature and social life, and the instinct of imitation is rooted in
　　 people. in nature. Lucretius, Horace, and Aris
　　Dodd of ancient Rome had similar views. Mazzoni in Renaissance Italy regarded
　　poetry as both an art of imitation and a game. In fact, he regarded literature
　　 Its origins are attributed to the game of imitation. Later, Sidney in England, through
　　discussing the primitive literature of the Indians, pointed out that literature was produced through imitation that contained
　　 education and pleasure. These statements acknowledge that the source of literature is nature and social life, and shine with the brilliance of materialist thought. But they interpret
　　imitation as a certain nature of human beings and ignore the huge role of social practice in forming people's
　　psychological abilities.
　　② Divine revelation theory. Starting from Plato in ancient Greece, the production of poetry
　　 has been explained as the possession of divine inspiration on poets. Thomas Aquinas in the European Middle Ages believed that art originated from the human soul, and the soul was the image and creation of God
　　. This view was very popular during the Renaissance.
　　For example, Boccaccio believes that poetry is a practical art that originates from the mind of God
　　. Even Bacon, a philosopher with materialistic ideas, also expressed the view that poetry
　　 originated from God's revelation. The "divine revelation theory" gradually lost its persuasiveness with the
　　evolution of modern civilization. In the 18th century, a group of philosophers
　　 (such as Herder and others) refuted its absurdity.
　　③ Game said. In the 16th century, Mazzoni, while advocating the theory of imitation,
　　 disclosed the view that "literature and art are games". The German philosopher Immanuel Kant further regarded poetry as "the free play of imagination". By Schiller,
　　 formally formed the "game theory" of the origin of art. Schiller believes that people are bound by both material and spiritual constraints in real life, and they desire to use excess energy to achieve freedom. This is a game; And artistic activities, that is, in the game
　　. The 19th-century British philosopher Spencer supplemented Schiller's views,
　　 pointing out that the essence of art and games is free imitation
　　 activities for people to vent their excess energy. . Gros, who wrote "The Human Game" and other books, critically accepted Schiller's "game theory" and believed that games are not caused by excess energy, but by
　 　 is preparation and practice for practical activities. The "game theory" has been criticized by Guyot,
　　Plekhanov and others. When the psychologist Feng De put forward the idea that "games are
　　 the product of labor", Plekhanov partially
　　 affirmed the "game theory" on this point of view. ".
　　④Theory of spiritual expression. Regarding art as a manifestation of the human soul (including thoughts,
　　emotions, etc.), clues emerged as early as ancient Greek philosophy.
　　In the 19th century, it was widely advocated by romantic artists and theorists. Snow
　　 said in his "Poetry Debate" that poetry is "a barbarian's expression of the feelings that are inspired by the things around him" and is a kind of "imagination Performance". Coleridge also
　　 believes that poetry originates from imagination
　　 that does not reflect reality but can be perfect in itself. This "imaginary representation theory" is also supported by Bradley, Wilde and others. The Russian writer Tolstoy believed that art is a tool for human beings to express their feelings
　　. It originated from people conveying the feelings they have experienced to others.
　　This "emotional expression theory" has more supporters. Hillen, who wrote the book "The Origin of Art", described art as "an important means of communicating ideas". Modern aestheticians such as Richard, Abercrombie, and Richard all agree with this "thought expression theory." Croce, the Italian idealist aesthetician
　　, opposed the expression of any rational thought in art and promoted that "intuition is expression" and "intuition is art". In fact, he The origin of art is classified as low-level intuition that can only reflect individual images. Croce's "Intuitive Expression
　　 Theory" was very popular before World War II. Austrian psychologist
　　 Freud used a psychoanalytic perspective to explain the origin of art, believing that
　　 there are two opposing parts of the human psyche, the conscious and the subconscious. The sexual instinct in the subconscious
　　 is the basic driving force of psychological activities; the sexual instinct is always suppressed by reality
　　. When people transfer it to the fantasy life they want, Art is produced when
　　 is removed from creation, so art is essentially an unconscious expression of sexual instinct
　　 at its core. The views of Swiss psychologist Jung are similar to Freud
　　. They all have a large number of believers and are still popular in the West. The above
　　 various views all capture the characteristics of art expressing human psychology from one aspect; but they always regard human psychology as related to The transcendent
　　 things that are out of touch with real life have not really solved the problem of the origin of art, but have only abstracted and mystified the problem
　　.
　　⑤The theory of witchcraft. The 18th-century Italian philosopher Vico initially talked about
　　 the close relationship between primitive poetry and primitive religion; but he did not clearly point out
　　 that poetry originated from witchcraft technique. Since the 19th century, anthropologists represented by Taylor, Fraser, and Hartland have conducted in-depth studies on the witchcraft of existing primitive tribes. Research has provided rich materials for the "witchcraft theory" of the origin of art.
　　On the basis of these data, the French archaeologist Renac proposed the argument that art originated from primitive people's sympathetic witchcraft
　　 and believed that primitive art actually It is a type of witchcraft
　　. Its purpose is to pray for success in hunting. This argument has been quite popular since the 20th century
　　, and many contemporary aestheticians (Gidson and others) agree
　　. However, ethnologists such as Malinowski provided information that some primitive tribes
　　 only had art but no witchcraft, making it difficult to justify the "witchcraft theory"
< x3>　It said.
　　⑥Labor theory. The view that art clearly originated from labor
　　 actually began with a group of ethnologists and art historians in the late 19th century. Bicher of Germany
　　 pointed out in "Labor and Rhythm" that labor, music and poetry
　　 were originally connected in a trinity, and their basis is labor. . Mason
　　 believes that the most primitive poetry is labor poetry, and its purpose is to enhance the effect of labor
　　. Desso also talked about the relationship between poetry and
　　labor in "Aesthetics and Art Theory", but he believed that the purpose of labor poetry was not to strengthen labor. But to make labor easier. In his famous book
　　 "Letter without Address", Plekhanov discussed many
　　 examples of "labor precedes art". His main point is It is: "The development of art is causally linked to the development of productive forces, although it is not always a direct link. "For several years,
　　the view that art originated from labor has been prevalent in the literary and art theoretical circles of the Soviet Union and China;
　　but sometimes the "direct connection between labor and art" is sometimes simply sought. "Contact" cannot
　　completely explain the origin of all primitive art. The "labor
　　 theory" on the origin of art should be prevented from being simplistic and absolute.
　　In addition to the above-mentioned views, there have been other
　　 theories about the origin of art since the 19th century. For example: French art historian Danner believes that the origin and development of literature and art are determined by the three elements
　　 of race, environment and era. He and German human beings Scientist Ratzel and others are called the "sociological school";
　　British biologist Darwin believed that art (especially music) originated from birds
　　 Animals have sexual attraction. This "sexual love theory" on the origin of art has been abandoned by most aestheticians today; contemporary American prehistoric archaeologist Ma
　 　Shak believes that the earliest art was a system of symbols
　　 used by primitive people to record seasonal changes, etc.
　　In ancient Chinese books, there are also many descriptions of the origin of art or primitive art
　　. Ancient Chinese books agree that literature and art originated very early.
　　Zheng Xuan of the Han Dynasty said in the "Preface to the Book of Poetry": "The prosperity of poetry will not last until the emperor's
　　 lifetime. "Places the "prosperity of poetry" in the legendary era of Yu and Shun. Kong Yingda of the Tang Dynasty
　　 believed in "Mao Shi Zhengyi" that poetry "will not have its origins in the time of Shun" and "songs will last forever". Shen Yue, who lived in the Southern and Northern Dynasties, said in the "Song Book·Xie Lingyun Biography"
　　: "However, singing is born, and it is appropriate to give birth to the people. Liu Xie, who was at the same time as him, also held the same view. It can be seen that ancient Chinese scholars 1,500 years ago have
　　 concluded that literature and art originated from primitive society. At the same time, ancient Chinese
　　 books also describe several views on the origin of art. "Lu's Spring and Autumn Period Ancient Music"
　　 talks about the original music and songs being
　　 produced by "imitating the sounds of the eight winds" and "listening to the cry of the phoenix"; "Lu Shi·Postscript 10" writes: Emperor Yao's "destiny released the sound of mountains, rivers, streams
　　 valleys, and sang the eight winds. " Ruan Ji of the Jin Dynasty also pointed out in "Music Theory" that the original
　　 music songs had the characteristics of "incorporating the birth of all things". This is actually a view that art
　　 originated from imitation. "Shang Shu Shun Dian" says: "Poetry expresses aspirations, songs
　　 speak forever, the sound is eternal, and the rhythm is harmonious. "Book of Rites and Music" says: "Every sound
　　 originates from the human heart." When the human heart moves, things make it happen. It feels
　　 moved by things, so it takes shape from sound. "Preface to Mao's Poems" says: "The poet has his ambition."
　　What is in the heart is ambition, and what is spoken is poetry. Emotions move in the heart and form in words. The words are not enough, so
　　 I sigh because they are not enough; I sigh because they are not enough, so I sing about them. "These views are similar to the Western "expression theory". In China's feudal society for more than two thousand years, the view of "poetry expresses ambition" occupied a dominant position. "Lu's Spring and Autumn Period Ancient Music" records the titles of "Ge Tian's Music" which is said to have originated in ancient times. Among them, "Fen
　　 "Five Grains" probably sings about agricultural production, and ""The Ultimate Beast" probably sings about hunting
　　 life. "Lu Shi Chun Qiu·Yin Ci" and "Huainan Zi·Dao Ying Xun" record
　　 about the "Song of Lifting Persuasion" in which "the former calls out evil promises, and the latter also responds". In
　　 "Historical Records" cites "Benji of the Three Emperors" and "Collection of Ancient and Modern Books" cites "Distinguish
　　 Music Theory", there are also records of Fuxi's era "Song of the Net". Probably
　　Based on this situation, the annotation of "Gongyang Zhuan·Xuan Gong's Fifteenth Year" proposed
　　 "The hungry sing about their food, and the laborers sing about it" The viewpoint of "their things" contains the idea of ​​labor production poetry
　　. "Book of Changes" says: "Thunders came out of the earth to stir up Yu, and the ancient kings worshiped
　　 virtues by making music, and they recommended God. "The Rites of Zhou" says: "Great music brings about revelations from ghosts and gods." "
　　 "Book of Han" says: "Musicians sing about the nine virtues and recite six poems, so as to recommend the temple in the suburbs,
　　 the ghosts and gods will enjoy it. "Lu Shi·Houji 8" said: "...it is the song of Guishui,
　　 and it is created by calling." "These accounts reveal the close connection between poetry, music, dance and sacrificial witchcraft
　　. It can be seen that in ancient Chinese books, the origin of art has also been discussed in many aspects
　　.
　　The opinions listed above are all speculative hypotheses and have not been
　　 recognized by the academic community. The reason for this is that they failed to fully
　　 possess the information, and each only grasped one aspect of the problem. Today, when studying
　　 the origins of literature and art, the following types of data should be relied upon: ① Prehistoric
　　 archaeological data; ② Ethnology of existing primitive tribes Materials; ③ descriptions of the origins of literature and art in ancient books; ④ children's art psychology materials for reference. In comparison, prehistoric archaeological data are the most reliable. However, primitive literature, which is basically transmitted orally, is extremely difficult to leave traces in prehistoric archaeological data, just like music, dance and other temporal arts. . Therefore, the Australian Aboriginals, South African Bushmen, and
　　Eskimos (who are roughly equivalent to those of the Paleolithic Age) who still retained their original characteristics at the beginning of the 20th century Fishing and hunting people),
　　Melanesians and Polynesians of the Pacific islands, and American Indians (they are roughly equivalent to the Neolithic The farmers and herdsmen of the era), as well as China's Oroqen, Ewenki, Wa, Naxi, Dulong, Nu, Brown
　　 and other ethnic minorities, have become the subject of research Important reference. In addition, the myths, legends, ancient songs, and epics handed down by various ethnic groups also have important reference value
　　.
　　According to a large number of existing folklore materials of primitive tribes, it can be seen that in general
　　 primitive poetry is combined with music and dance. Their
　　 production will not be much later than the time when primitive plastic arts were produced. According to
　　 radioactive isotope carbon determination, the Magdalenian cave paintings depicting images of witchcraft rituals appeared from about 18,000 BC to Between 11,000 years. This
　　 era can be determined as the lower limit of the origin of primitive poetry. In fact, the origin of the original poetry
　　 may be even earlier.
　　New trends in the study of literary origins　Although primitive poetry is closely related to music and dance
　　Dance, primitive poetry cannot be regarded as a It is a derivative of dance
　　. Primitive poetry has its own unique and diverse origins.
　　In the beginning, when primitive people performed manual labor, they would embed some
　　meaningless words into their labor calls, such as "evil promise", in order to reduce the risk of The
　　 tension of labor obtains the pleasure arising from the repetition of sounds. In some cases,
　　 conversely, it can coordinate everyone's labor actions and become a signal for organizing collective labor
　　. Furthermore, when people are not satisfied with the simple repetition of sounds, they
　　 will enter the rhythm stage. Rhythm, like rhythm, can give workers an auditory
　　 pleasure. At first, because of the lack of sufficient vocabulary, I often used lining words without
　　 meaning to rhyme. A primitive hunting song of the Oroqen people: "A
　　Asuoya, Asuoya, the black Bilar River! Asoa, Asoa, go hunting along the
　　 river! ..." The "Asoa" here is a lining word used to rhyme
　　. After that, the lining words were cancelled, and people combined Ye Yun's life vocabulary
　　 together. For example, the legend recorded in "Wuyue Spring and Autumn" was the "Tan
　　 Song of the Yellow Emperor's Era ": "Broken bamboo, renewed bamboo, flying earth, chasing □ (meat). "That's a
　　 complete poem. It can be seen from this that the labor calls and labor
　　 chants of primitive people are the embryonic basis for producing primitive poetry. But there is also the opposite situation, that is,
　　 people use poetry to express their carnival mood after the victory of labor. For example, a song by the Potocudo people in South America: "The hunting was good today, a wild beast was killed by
　　; now there is food, Eat well and drink well. Another example is the "Happy Song" of the Ewen
　　 Croats: "The jumping fox rejoices in the green grass
　　; guests from all over the place , the happiest thing is to have fun together. The running and playful fox
　　 likes high mountains and dense forests; guests from all over are happiest
　　 singing together. ” It can be seen that simply expressing emotions can also produce original poetry. But this
　　 emotion is not a priori "human nature", but is closely connected with the
　　 labor or life of primitive tribesmen. In the later period of the primitive commune, inter-tribal wars
　　 became more and more frequent, and some poems were used to boost morale, such as the Australian aboriginal
　　 war song: "Stab him Stab his forehead, stab his chest; stab his liver, stab his
　　 heart; stab his waist, stab his shoulders; stab his belly, stab his ribs! ” While
　　 inspiring fighting passion, it also has the meaning of drill. An ancient Miao song spread in the Jianhe area of ​​Guizhou says: "Use stones as hoes, break branches as rakes, and draw bamboo poles as dustpans to reach the mountains. Go up and open the fields. "Poetry accompanies dance,
　　 and also means practicing production movements. Therefore, the original poetry that was first produced was mostly related to practical purposes. Those poems sung in witchcraft appear to be absurd and superstitious on the surface
　　but in essence they are still intended to conquer the alienated nature
　　 , to obtain information for living. Moreover, many details in witchcraft are exactly
　　 labor actions in disguise. Therefore, war poetry, imitative drill poetry
　　, and witchcraft poetry are not insulated from working life. For these reasons,
　　also in view of labor poetry It has the earliest origin, and labor can be regarded as the initial and core reason for the origin of literature
　　.
　　However, the origins of some other primitive literary styles cannot simply
　　 be attributed to labor. The content and form of original poetry are increasingly enriched and developed. Sex poetry, which started later than
　　labor poetry, should be considered to have originated from the fiery passion of primitive tribes
　　. Poems about natural beauty and love collected among the Eskimos, Indians, and Oroqen
　　 people appeared
　　 later, and they reached the point of true art. Aesthetic character is formed by complex reasons
　　. Myths, legends, epics, animal and plant stories, proverbs, fairy tales and other literary styles were produced around the late period of the primitive commune. The reasons for their
　　 production are also multi-faceted, either to explain natural phenomena, or
　　 to record the history of tribal struggles, or to spread it to future generations. Knowledge and experience, or
　　, use the spirit of heroic ancestors to inspire tribe members, and even use them as subjects for
　　 boys and girls to hold "adult-style" examinations. Some poems, myths
　　 and epic poems are listed as clan classics and can only be mastered
　　 by clan chiefs and wizards. But there are also many poems, myths, stories, and proverbs that have become the spiritual wealth shared by all
　　 ethnic groups and are passed down orally. Therefore, in general
　　, the origin of primitive literature is complicated. In modern times, several scholars specialize in
　　 the origin of art, such as
　　 Grosse and Hilln, who respectively wrote the monograph "The Origin of Art". Haddon, Plehannoff, Cosven, Desseau and others in "The Evolution of Art" all reveal pluralistic
　　 tendencies to varying degrees. . Today, attributing the origin of literature to various social practices with labor as the core has formed the latest theoretical research trend.
　　(Bao Chang)

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